Northern+Front

http://www.loc.gov/teachers/classroommaterials/presentationsandactivities/presentations/timeline/amrev/north/

In the first eighteen months of armed conflict with the British (the conflict would not become a "war for independence" until July 4, 1776), Washington had begun to create an army and forced the British army in Boston to evacuate that city in March 1776. The major question after their evacuation was what they would do next. Washington was almost certain that the British would attack New York, since that position was of critical importance for their operations both North and South. Besides, that is what he would have done had he been in Sir William Howe's shoes.

Even though his premonition eventually proved true, British intentions did not become clear until their fleet descended upon New York in August 1776. For a variety of reasons, Washington and his generals made a number of mistakes during the engagements in the New York area. These mistakes and Britain's far superior naval power led to decided British victories on Long Island and on Manhattan. Had the British commanders been a bit more aggressive, their naval power might have put the Continental Army at great risk of total defeat.

After Washington was driven from Manhattan, his army fought Howe's forces to a standstill at White Plains. Even so, the British were now in control of New York City. Again, the question became, what would the British do next? Washington thought the logical next step for them to do was to move on Philadelphia, so he moved most of his army south into New Jersey. Indeed, British forces under General Charles Lord Cornwallis chased and harrassed the Continentals all the way through New Jersey. When Washington's army reached Trenton Falls, their fortunes seemed at low ebb. Surprisingly, at that point Howe ordered his army into winter quarters rather than attacking the Americans. Seizing the opportunity Howe presented him, Washington counterattacked at Trenton in late December 1776 and then at Princeton in early 1777.

What Washington had done in nine days was truly staggering. Just when many Americans thought all was lost, Washington had produced two major victories over one of the world's most powerful armies. Trenton and Princeton tended to put to rest the second-guessing about Washington's leadership, a belief that had grown as the Continental Army suffered defeats in New York and then retreated through New Jersey. These victories had also been watched closely by many European leaders; they now came to view Washington as an adroit and able commander.

On the other hand, the British were not impressed with Washington's accomplishments. All in all, Lord North thought 1776 had been a very good year for the British. They had retained Canada and captured New York City, their losses of soldiers had not been great, and nearly 40,000 loyalists had received pardons from Howe. British leaders would also have been heartened had they fully known what Washington knew about the chronic problems experienced by the Continental Army. Washington was continually concerned with problems of the militia, recruits, and deserters and he constantly reminded Congress of the need for a standing professional army and a better system of supply.

For additional documents related to these topics, search American Memory using such key words as Boston, Long Island, Manhattan, White Plains, New Jersey, Trenton, Princeton, and General Howe. Search Washington's Papers by date (of specific battles, for example), and use the terms found in the documents to the right of the page.

DOCUMENTS

1. George Washington to John A. Washington, March 31, 1776

In the following letter from Washington to his brother John, Washington describes the situation in Boston leading up to the evacuation of that town by British forces. How does Washington describe the actions he took to force the British from Boston? What does Washington think the British will do next? What attitude does Washington exhibit concerning his army and "serving the Cause"?

2. George Washington to Nicholas Cooke, March 21, 1776

On March 21, 1776, General Washington wrote the following letter to Nicholas Cooke, Governor of Rhode Island. According to the letter, what does Washington think the British will do next? Why does he think that will be the case? What support does Washington offer Governor Cooke for the defense of Rhode Island?

3. George Washington on British Intentions for 1776

On April 23, 1776, Congress requested General Washington's opinion about whether it was necessary to send more troops to Canada and whether he could safely spare them from the army in New York. In the first document below, Washington responds to Congress's request. What is Washington's sense of the strategic situation at this point? In the second document, Washington is still unclear about British intentions. How does he describe these difficulties? The third and fourth documents inform the Congress that the British have arrived in the New York area. What is Washington's sense of the situation now?

4. Washington and the Declaration of Independence, July 1776

By the summer of 1776, American and British forces had been engaged in armed conflict for fifteen months. On July 4, 1776, the Declaration of Independence changed the purpose and nature of that conflict. The two documents that follow concern Washington's reaction to receiving the Declaration of Independence from Congress. What is Washington's response to the news? What impact does he think the Declaration will be on his army?

5. The British Land on Long Island, August 1776

Although the British had landed in the New York area in late June, Washington reported to Congress in mid-August that the "Enemy have made no movements of consequence:--They remain in the same state." Even so, Washington knew the British must soon attack because the summer season for military operations was rapidly vanishing. In the first document below, Washington informed Congress that the British had landed on Long Island. What is Washington's sense of their intentions? In the second document, Washington's General Orders for August 23, 1776, Washington orders his army to prepare for action. What preparations does Washington order his officers to make? In the last paragraph, how does Washington "encourage" his soldiers to do their duty?

6. The Results of the Battle of Long Island

The Battle of Long Island was a disaster for the Continental Army. Matters could have been even worse had British General Sir William Howe continued his assault rather than deciding to undertake siege operations. In the following two letters from George Washington to the Continental Congress, how does Washington describe the effects of the battle? What major problems does he now face? Why does Washington believe that militias are ineffective and the Congress must establish a permanent standing army?

7. Washington's Strategy: "A War of Posts"

In the aftermath of the disaster of the Battle of Long Island, Washington and his officers gave considerable thought to their strategic situation. In the following letter written on September 8, 1776, Washington explained his developing strategy--which he called a "war of posts"--to the Continental Congress. What are the main features of his strategy?

8. Defending Manhattan Island, September 1776

Often in war--as in other human activities--what one assumes is just as important in one's decision-making as verifiable "facts" of the matter. In addition, most decisions have to be made before necessary information is at hand. A case in point was Washington's attempt to defend New York City from Sir William Howe's army. As a result, the Army found itself nearly trapped by British forces on Manhattan Island. In the following documents, how did Washington and his advisors arrive at a decision to defend Manhattan Island in the face of British land and naval forces? What factors contributed to the decision to evacuate New York City?

9. From White Plains to Trenton, November-December 1776

Finally being convinced that their defense of Manhattan was untenable, Washington moved his army north to White Plains, New York, in late October. On October 28, the two armies clashed, but only about 15 percent of each army was involved in the fighting. Although General Howe had a numerical advantage, he nevertheless decided to return to New York City. Even so, British General Charles Lord Cornwallis chased Washington's army through New Jersey for the next two months. In the following letter from George Washington to his brother John A. Washington, how does Washington describe the events of the last two months? What intentions does he ascribe to the British? What difficulties does he mention to his brother?

10. Thomas Paine Writes "The American Crisis," December 1776

On December 4, 1776, Thomas Paine, the author of the sensational pamphlet Common Sense, published The Crisis, No. 1, the first of a series of pamphlets he wrote during the next seven years. In the following excerpts from that broadside, what are the primary arguments Paine puts forth for the Patriot cause? What is most and least persuasive in his arguments?

11. At Trenton Falls, December 20, 1776

After chasing and harrassing the Continental Army through New Jersey for two months, General Howe rather inexplicably decided to go into winter quarters. He stationed British troops at seven camps (cantonments) from the Hudson to the Delaware Rivers. In the following letter from George Washington to the Continental Congress, how does Washington describe the situation he now faced? What evidence can you find that Washington was about to take the initiative?

12. Washington Describes Victory at Trenton, New Jersey, December 27, 1776

Despite the "war of posts" defensive strategy announced to Congress, Washington had an aggressive temperament--perhaps even a bit of a gambler's mentality--as a military leader. This temperament was certainly in evidence in his Christmas evening attack on Trenton, New Jersey. In the following letter from Washington to the Continental Congress, how does Washington describe the battle? What reasons does he mention for not being able to produce an even more astonishing victory?

13. Washington Describes Victory at Princeton, January 5, 1777

After the Continental Army's victory at Trenton, its commander continued to roll the dice. In the following letter from Washington to the Continental Congress, how does Washington describe the victory at Princeton? Did everything go according to his original plan? What was the immediate result of this battle?

14. Washington Watches Howe, February 1777

From his army's winter quarters in Morristown, New Jersey, Washington watched Howe's army closely, expecting that they would begin some sort of offense. In the following letter from Washington to his brother John A. Washington, what does Washington say he expects Howe to do? Why? What problems does Washington relate to his brother?