Turning+Point

http://www.loc.gov/teachers/classroommaterials/presentationsandactivities/presentations/timeline/amrev/turning/

In 1777, the British were still in excellent position to quell the rebellion. Had it not been for a variety of mistakes, they probably could have won the war.

During early 1777, British officials considered a number of plans for their upcoming campaign. One they apparently decided upon was to campaign through the Hudson River Valley and thereby cut off New England from the rest of the colonies. General William Howe was to drive north from New York City while General John Burgoyne was to drive south from Canada. Meanwhile, British General Barry St. Leger would drive down the Mohawk Valley in upstate New York. The major problem was not with the plan but with its execution. Historians continue to debate whether Howe was ill-informed or simply acted on his own. Whatever the reasons, Howe decided to capture Philadelphia, the seat of the Continental Congress, rather than to work in concert with Burgoyne and St. Leger.

Howe hoped that by seizing Philadelphia, he would rally the Loyalists in Pennsylvania, discourage the rebels by capturing their capital, and bring the war to a speedy conclusion. Washington tried to thwart Howe's plan, but Howe out-maneuvered him at Brandywine Creek and then at Germantown. While Howe's forces settled into winter quarters in Philadelphia, the Continental Army went into winter quarters at Valley Forge. There, the army faced deprivation in the extreme.

Meanwhile to the north, Burgoyne and St. Leger suffered significant defeats at Oriskany, New York; Bennington, Vermont; and finally at Saratoga, New York. These American victories were critical for they helped convince France to recognize American independence and brought the French directly into the war as military allies. The French Treaty was also a result of a new British peace proposal, announced by Lord North in late 1777. The French were concerned that the Americans would agree to North's proposal since it offered them virtual autonomy within the British Empire. The French Alliance changed the face of the war for the British; the American war for independence was now in essence a world war. Even so, as many of the documents listed to the right suggest, winning the war even after the French Treaty was still not a certainty.

For additional documents related to these topics, search American Memory using such key words as Howe, Burgoyne, Gates, Saratoga, Philadelphia, Brandywine, Germantown, Valley Forge, France, and Vergennes (the French Foreign Minister). Search Washington's Papers and the Journals of the Continental Congress by date (of specific battles, for example), and use the terms found in the documents to the right of the page.

DOCUMENTS:

1. Washington Assesses the Strategic Situation, July 25, 1777

In the following letter from Washington to the Continental Congress, Washington shows his grasp of the strategic situation in the summer of 1777. How does Washington describe that situation? What does Washington think the British will do next?

2. Washington Speculates About General Howe's Intentions, August 21, 1777

By the end of August 1777, British General William Howe had embarked his army onto British ships. Howe's destination, however, was uncertain. According to the following letter from Washington to the Continental Congress, what does Washington think Howe will do? What does Washington say his army can do to counter Howe's presumed movement?

3. Washington's General Orders, September 5, 1777

By early September 1777, General Howe's intentions for the 1777 campaign had finally become clear. Howe's army was moving on the united colonies' seat of government, Philadelphia. In Washington's General Orders to his troops below, what does he convey about the stakes involved in the coming battles and campaign? How does he try to prepare his soldiers for the coming action?

4. Washington Describes the Battle at Brandywine Creek, September 11, 1777

Although tending to be timid in offensive operations, General Howe nonetheless got the best of the Americans by attacking the Continental Army at Brandywine Creek. In the following letter from Washington to the Continental Congress, how does Washington account for the failure of his troops to beat the British?

5. Victory at the Battle of Saratoga, October-November 1777

Washington's military instincts about what the British should have done during their 1777 campaign were more than borne out by General Horatio Gates's victory over British General John Burgoyne at Saratoga, New York. As previous documents have suggested, Washington thought that General Howe should move up the Hudson River to join forces with Burgoyne. In fact, at one point this was exactly the British plan; however, that plan was only one of several and, as it turned out, not the one that Howe followed. As a result of the British blunder, Gates's forces were able to defeat Burgoyne. In the following documents, what is Washington's view of Gates's success? In the third document, what does Washington say should be done with respect to the surrendered British troops? Why?

6. "There Was Choice of Difficulties," December 22, 1777

The hardships that Washington's army would face during their winter at Valley Forge, Pennsylvania, are hinted at in the following letter from Washington to the Continental Congress. Washington's growing concern about his men seems also to influence his view of the disposition and activities of his army. In the document below, how does Washington describe his army's situation? What is his "choice of difficulties"?

7. Washington Describes the Continental Army at Valley Forge, Winter 1777-1778

The hardships that Washington's army faced during their winter at Valley Forge, Pennsylvania, are addressed in the following letter from Washington to the Continental Congress. How does Washington describe his army's situation? What is his attitude toward Congress and those who were apparently criticizing his leadership? According to the second document, dated February 7, 1778, what is the situation of the Continental Army at Valley Forge? How does it compare with the situation Washington describes in his December 23 letter?

8. Washington's Reaction to Lord North's Peace Proposal, Spring 1778

In late 1777, the British Prime Minister, Frederick Lord North, secured Parliament's enactment of a proposal to negotiate peace with the Americans. In the documents below, what views does Washington express about the peace proposal? What dangers does he perceive? Why does Washington support the publication of Lord North's peace proposal?

9. Without Reform the Continental Army Will Dissolve, April 21, 1778

While the Continental Army was in winter quarters at Valley Forge, Washington and the Congress discussed at length reforming the army. According to the following document, dated April 21, 1778, what is Washington's view of reform of the Continental Army? What does he see as the result if the army is not reformed? What is his view of the Continental Congress at this time?

10. The French Alliance, May 4, 1778

On May 4, 1778, the Continental Congress discussed two treaties with the French that had been signed in Paris by American and French officials on February 6, 1778. What are the major provisions of the treaty? What issues do these provisions seem to address? Why do you think the Secret Article of the Treaty was a secret? Compare this treaty with the Treaty of Amity and Commerce, which can be found in the same document. What are the major differences?

11. Washington Opposes a Franco-American Attack on Canada, November 11, 1778

According to John Fitzpatrick, one of the editors of George Washington's papers, the following letter to the Continental Congress is one of the most important Washington ever wrote to that body. In the letter, dated November 11, 1778, what view does Washington express about the joint Franco-American campaign against Canada proposed by Congress? What are his major arguments? Do you agree with Washington's assessment?

12. Washington and Laurens Exchange Private Views of the French Alliance, November 1778

Soon after sending his official November 11, 1778, response to Congress concerning a joint Franco-American attack on Canada, Washington wrote a personal letter to Henry Laurens, President of that body. Washington's letter and Laurens's response are excerpted below. How do the views and arguments in this letter differ from those expressed in Washington's official response to Congress? What are Laurens's views about the Treaty? On what parts do the two men agree?

13. Why the British Continue to Fight, December 18, 1778

Seven months after the Continental Congress ratified the Treaty with France, Washington wrote the following letter to his friend Benjamin Harrison. Many historians view the treaty as a critical turning point in America's War for Independence, but Washington's letter suggests that he did not perceive the alliance as such a turning point. What are Washington's criticisms of the states for the current, nearly desperate, situation? What are his criticisms of the Continental Congress?